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Intermediate English · Grammar and reading skills

Unit 2 – Reference

Anaphoric and cataphoric reference: looking backwards and forwards

Step 1. Connecting sentences

When we speak or write, we often refer to people, things or ideas that have already been mentioned. This helps us connect sentences and avoid unnecessary repetition.

Yesterday I bought a book in a second-hand bookshop. The book was about the history of Brighton. I started reading it on the bus home. The story was fascinating.

Notice how the writer refers back to the same book in different ways:

Anaphoric reference means referring backwards to something already mentioned in the text. The definite article is one way of doing this, but it is not the only way.

Step 2. Referring back with the + noun

We often introduce a singular countable noun with a or an. When we mention the same person or thing again, we can use the.

I saw a man outside the station.

The man was carrying a large suitcase.

She bought a coat yesterday.

The coat was very expensive.

We found a wallet in the street.

The wallet contained some photographs.

The same principle applies to plural nouns and uncountable nouns:

The noun phrase with the points back to a person or thing that the reader can now identify.

Exercise 1. Choose the correct phrase

1. I bought ___ yesterday. ___ was quite cheap.

2. We met some students. ___ were from Italy.

3. She gave me some information. ___ was very useful.

Answers
  1. a car / the car
  2. The students
  3. The information

Step 3. Referring back with pronouns

We do not always repeat the noun. We can use a pronoun instead.

First mentionReference back
I bought a book.It was expensive.
I bought two books.They were expensive.
We met a woman.She was looking for the station.
I saw John and Mary.I spoke to them.
Peter lost his keys.He couldn't find them.

Pronouns help us avoid repeating the same noun. The reader has to identify what each pronoun refers to.

Exercise 2. Choose the correct pronoun

1. I bought a new car. ___ is very economical.

2. She bought some apples. ___ looked delicious.

3. Mary was tired, so I drove ___ home.

4. I found some old photographs. I showed ___ to my sister.

Answers
  1. It
  2. They
  3. her
  4. them

Step 4. Referring back with demonstratives

We can use this, that, these and those to refer back to something already mentioned.

This and that can also refer to a whole event or situation, not just one noun.

Notice: This often presents something as close or immediate in the writer's thinking. That can refer to something more distant or already completed. In many contexts, both are possible, depending on the speaker's viewpoint.

Exercise 3. What does the reference point to?

1. John failed his exam. This upset his parents. What does this refer to?

2. Mary made several suggestions. Some of these were excellent. What does these refer to?

3. They offered me a job, but that was not what I wanted. What does that refer to?

Answers
  1. John failing his exam
  2. The suggestions
  3. The offer of a job

Step 5. Referring back with other expressions

We can also use expressions such as some of them, both of them, one of these, the former and the latter.

The former refers to the first of two things mentioned; the latter refers to the second. These expressions are more common in formal writing.

Exercise 4. Choose the correct expression

1. We invited six people. ___ couldn't come.

2. I have two brothers. ___ live abroad.

3. We discussed the cost and the quality. The former was acceptable, but ___ was disappointing.

Answers
  1. Some of them
  2. Both of them
  3. the latter

Step 6. Reference to a whole idea

Sometimes a reference word points back not to one noun, but to an entire statement or situation.

John lost his job. This upset his family.

This = the fact that John lost his job.

The train was cancelled. That caused considerable inconvenience.

That = the cancellation of the train.

Mary refused to help. This surprised everybody.

This = Mary's refusal to help.

This kind of reference is especially useful in longer texts because it allows writers to connect ideas and explain consequences.

Step 7. Cataphoric reference – looking forwards

So far, we have looked at reference backwards. Sometimes, however, a reference word comes before the information it refers to.

CATS JUMP FORWARDS
Cataphoric reference

The reference points forwards to information that comes later.

When he arrived, John went straight to bed.

He points forwards to John.

Compare this with anaphoric reference:

Anaphoric – back

John arrived late. He had missed the bus.

He points backwards to John.

Cataphoric – forwards

When he arrived, John went straight to bed.

He points forwards to John.

Remember: Anaphoric reference looks backwards. Cataphoric reference looks forwards. CATS JUMP FORWARDS is a reminder of the word cataphoric.

Exercise 5. Anaphoric or cataphoric?

1. John arrived late. He had missed the bus.

2. When he arrived, John went straight to bed.

3. Some students arrived early. They helped to prepare the room.

4. Although she was tired, Mary continued working.

Answers
  1. Anaphoric
  2. Cataphoric
  3. Anaphoric
  4. Cataphoric

Step 8. Reading: An unexpected visitor

Read the passage. Pay attention to the words and expressions that refer to people, things and ideas mentioned elsewhere in the text.

Last Saturday, a woman came to our front door. She was carrying a large envelope. The envelope had no address on it, but it had my name written on the front.

I opened it and found several old photographs. Some of them showed a house that I recognised. The house belonged to my grandparents many years ago. I had not seen these photographs before.

This surprised me because I thought that all the family photographs had been lost. I asked the woman where she had found them. She explained that her father had recently moved house and had discovered the photographs in an old box.

When she left, I looked at the pictures again. They brought back many happy memories.

Exercise 6. What do the reference words refer to?

1. In the first paragraph, who does she refer to?

2. In the second paragraph, what does the first it in “I opened it” refer to?

3. What does some of them refer to?

4. What does this refer to in “This surprised me”?

5. What does they refer to in the final sentence?

Answers
  1. The woman at the door
  2. The envelope
  3. The old photographs
  4. The discovery of the photographs, contrary to the writer's belief
  5. The pictures