Teaching the relationship between syntax and semantics: English verb tenses and their uses
Essay question: Describe the uses of the Present Perfect Tense in English.
Understanding the Present Perfect
General statements concerning the use of the Present Perfect Tense emphasise the connection between present and past:
"a sort of mixture of present and past" — Thomson & Martinet
"past with present relevance" or "past involving the present" — Leech
However, broad definitions like these are of limited help. A closer analysis of the past–present relationship is, in my view, the first stepping stone towards understanding the question of use. This takes account of meaning as conveyed, for example, through intonation and stress, or through the presence, nature or absence of adverbials.
Every English grammar has its own system of categorisation. I have found that the categories formulated by Leech in Meaning and the English Verb [30/11/2004] provide a clear understanding of the "past–present" aspect, as well as indicating some important functions of the Present Perfect Tense.
The Main Contexts in Which the Present Perfect Is Used
The Present Perfect is used in conversations, where there is a wealth of everyday examples, as well as in letters, newspapers, radio reports, prayers and other types of report. Within these contexts, the Present Perfect Tense has a variety of individual functions.
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State-up-to-the-present
The state extends over a period lasting up to the present moment. It may extend into the future. It is normally used with an adverbial of duration.
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Event verbs
Verbs used to refer to events have three main Present Perfect uses:
- Indefinite past: at least once before now. The indefinite meaning is commonly reinforced by ever, never, before (now), always and other adverbials. The number of events is commonly unspecified and the time is unspecified.
- Recent indefinite past: at least once in a period leading up to the present. Associated with adverbs such as just, already, recently and yet.
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Habit in a period leading up to the present
Used with an adverbial of duration and, optionally, an adverb of frequency: for five years, always, every month, for as long as I can remember, since.
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Resultative past
Used in reference to a past event to imply that the result of the event is still operative at the present time. No adverbial support is needed.
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Adverbial clauses of time referring to the future
I'll help you after I've washed up.
Special attention must be paid to certain verbs which refer to the states of having and being, since the Present Perfect Simple must be used, not the Continuous:
be, belong to, contain, consist of, cost, depend on, deserve, have, matter, own, resemble
1. The Present Perfect with State Verbs
The Present Perfect is used with "state verbs". Verbs normally used to refer to states include:
be, live, belong, last, like, stand, know, have, contain
A state is undifferentiated and lacking in defined limits:
How long have you lived in Brighton?
I've lived in Brighton for two years.
I've lived in Brighton since 1977.
Here, as in most examples of the Present Perfect applied to states, an adverbial is present and there is no suggestion that the statement may not be true of the future as well as being true of the period lasting up to the present moment.
2. The Present Perfect with Event Verbs
Verbs normally used to refer to events include:
jump, get, put, land, begin, find, hit, fall, go
An "event" has a beginning and an end. It may be part of a sequence of events or happenings, so it can therefore be viewed as a whole entity.
2a. Indefinite Past
Examples include:
I have never eaten frogs' legs, drunk port or flown in a helicopter.
He has just fallen over.
She has claimed unemployment benefit for the last five years.
We've finished our work.
The question Have you ever...? occurs frequently in conversation, particularly in discussions about past experiences.
2b. Recent Indefinite Past
This use is frequent in conversation, where short-term memory plays a fundamental role. The actuality of just and already explains why this use of the Present Perfect is especially common in news bulletins, letters and reports and summaries used in everyday conversation.
Mrs T. has just arrived in Moscow.
She's already met two of the country's leading dissidents.
Dear Maria, I've just received your card from Barcelona.
In news bulletins, the Past Simple and Past Perfect are used with much more frequency than the Present Perfect. The Indefinite Past does not tell you exactly when.
Expressions such as at six o'clock this morning and three hours ago are incompatible with the Present Perfect when they refer to a definite completed time.
The Present Perfect can also be used to express criticism:
The Government has doubled prices and lengthened dole queues.
Here there is a connection with the present: the speaker is concerned with what is wrong now. The Present Perfect can similarly be used when talking about achievements.
3. Habit in a Period Leading Up to the Present
An adverbial of duration is usually required:
She has claimed Social Security for as long as I can remember.
Without the adverbial of duration, the example would suggest the indefinite past.
An additional adverbial of frequency is also often used:
My typewriter has been serviced every year since I bought it.
Adverbials of Time and Their Compatibility with Different English Verb Tenses
Leech's points of orientation affect the choice of adverbials. The Present Perfect relates past time more directly to the present point of orientation, now.
See: Adverbials in relation to Perfect and Past (Leech).
Adverbials associated with the Past Simple but normally precluding the Present Perfect
a week ago, earlier this year, last Monday, the other day, yesterday evening
Adverbials most likely to occur with the Past Simple, but which can occur with the Present Perfect in an indefinite or iterative sense
at four o'clock, in the morning, on Tuesday, then, soon, next, after breakfast
I've always done my homework in the evenings.
Adverbials which may accompany the Present Perfect but not the Past Simple
for the present, for now, for the time being
Adverbials normally associated with the Present Perfect
so far, up to now, hitherto, since Thursday, since I met her, lately, latterly
Lately and latterly are particularly associated with the recent indefinite past.
Adverbials which can occur with either the Present Perfect or Past Simple
This group is interesting because it indicates cases where the two tenses are interchangeable, as well as instances where the actual meaning depends on the tense.
Always, ever and never can be used either with the Present Perfect or Past Simple:
I've always said... / I always said...
He's always been a liar. / He always was a liar.
Now and once can also produce different meanings according to the tense:
Now I've nearly finished my tea.
Now it was nearly dark. (for "then")
I've visited Toledo once. / Once I was innocent. (at one time)
Already, still, yet and before relate to the point of orientation "now" when used with the Present Perfect and to "then" when used with the Past Simple.
I've already finished it. (as early as now)
I was already very tired. (as early as then)
Other adverbials which combine with both tenses include:
today, this month, this year, this century, this morning, tonight, this March, this Christmas, recently, just, lately, latterly
Present Perfect Simple and Present Perfect Continuous
A common worry among advanced-level students is how to differentiate the Present Perfect Simple and Present Perfect Continuous tenses.
Note the temporary nature of the situations which the Continuous is used to describe. Temporariness and possible non-completion are important factors.
Only the Present Perfect Simple, not the Continuous, is used with verbs describing states of having and being.
Uses of the Present Perfect Continuous or Progressive Tense
The Present Perfect Continuous can also be used in cases 1–4, but not case 5. It is commonly used without adverbial reinforcement in category 1, "State verbs".
Teaching the Present Perfect
It would be artificial to attempt to teach the Present Perfect with overt reference to categories 1–5. Happily, textbooks provide a mixed collection of Present Perfect examples.
There is no problem of illustration since each of the categories mentioned leads directly into the language of everyday conversation. Moreover, there is no shortage of adverbials in the English language.
Given the abundance of living examples of use, the key to recognising the Present Perfect Tense rests with knowledge of time relations and all other aids to meaning, together with the ability to harness this knowledge for purposes of differentiation.
Books on the Relationship Between English Grammar and Use
The following books are particularly relevant to the relationship between English grammar, including verb tenses, and meaning or use:
- Meaning and the English Verb — Geoffrey Leech [09/09/2004]. A classic, in my view the best of the books listed here. Especially helpful for essays relating "language function" to "syntax or form", for example, What are the main uses of the Present Perfect?
- A Communicative Grammar of English — Geoffrey Leech and Jan Svartvik [06/01/2003]. This should appeal to teachers or learners requiring explanations of grammar in the context of meaning.
- Teaching Tenses: Ideas for Presenting and Practising Tenses in English — Rosemary Aitken [25/07/2002].
- Grammar for English Language Teachers (2nd Edition), with Exercises and a Key — Martin Parrott [29/01/2010].
- The English Verb: An Exploration of Structure and Meaning — Michael Lewis. Available used, but at a very high price. Michael Lewis is known for the Lexical Approach to English language learning and teaching, which he has written about in another work.